Lufthansa: Going Global Essay

Lufthansa Aviation group has become a worldwide leader in the airline industry with several powerful business segments, inclusive of a passenger airline component, business component, logistics, MRO catering and IT services. The aviation success has been largely due to their focus on quality, innovation, safety and reliability. Head quartered in Germany, Lufthansa has lead the pack with regard to international airline business. The Aviation Groups’ International Business Strategy has evolved to that of a corporate level transnational strategy, whereas there is a shared vision to achieve global efficiency yet effort to strengthen its local responsiveness in Germany (Hitt, 2009). Evident with the strategic alliance with Star Alliance, the development of Lufthansa Regional serves as a local response provision of a low- cost carrier, in addition to the modernizations of various traveler hubs and welcome lounges throughout the major key traffic hubs located in Germany. This international business strategy is considered a combination of multi –domestic and global strategies (Hitt, 2009). A transnational strategy uniquely offers the benefits inherent in both global and multi-domestic strategies; under this strategy each business component of Lufthansa can successfully exercise independent innovation given its decentralized structure. Lufthansa understood early, the benefits and advantages of international expansion evident through post WWII with travels to various countries (Lufthansa, 2010) later the formation of an strategic alliance with Star Alliance, which serves a global airline network. Star Alliance was established in 1997 with Lufthansa being one of its core founding members. Despite industry ups and downs related to international travel through the early 1980’s with the Iraq war, and then the frightening threat of terrorism post September 11, 2001, Lufthansa remained optimistic as did the rest of the airline industry, and responded to globalization appropriately. The majority responded in a like manner forming alliances in an effort to compete with the newly entered No-frills and lower cost competitive airline flights offerings. Competition of this kind, along with slow recovery of international travelers, increase in gas prices; the constant pressure to  reduce pricing order to remain competitive has taken a toll on the entire industry over the last decade. Lufthansa’s also crafted Lufthansa Regional which accounts for 50 percent of the Aviation group’s German and European flights. This Wholly owned subsidiary is entirely owned and controlled by Lufthansa the parent company, and was established to meet the need of low-cost carriers. Within Lufthansa Regional, exist Eurrowings and the partly owned City line. Through this development Lufthansa can offer a lower cost airline and reap the benefits of passengers opting for this Intercontinental airline versus going to a larger hub. Lufthansa used an acquisition strategy with the accumulation of SWISS AIR in 2005, a strategic move to prevent the competition British Airways and One World Alliance to seize the opportunity. The strategic alliance with Star Alliance was a concerted cooperative strategy to provide customers worldwide reach and a smooth travel experience (StarAlliance,2010). This remains as a shared objective for Star Alliance, Lufthansa and the other members of this alliance. It is understood that it is relatively impossible to survive in a global network outside of an alliance. This cooperative strategy serves as a mechanism for the Aviation Group to enter the market swiftly, and with greater impact with the support of the alliance. The airline industry has historically been a standard –cycle market, the same is true with this alliance thus allowing for savings and benefits to extend across its members (Hitt, 2009). The addition of Air China and Shanghai Airlines added as members, serves as a solid example of Star Alliance’s capability to assist in global expansion for all its members; and a unique opportunity to tap into a market that would be quite challenging if attempte d independently. This strategic network serves as a valuable cooperative arrangement to take place between the 18 members within the Star Alliance. This alliance allows for the sharing of cooperative relationships with stakeholders, customers, suppliers and competitors (Hitt, 2009). Air carriers commonly participate in multiple horizontal complementary alliances; this is demonstrated with the relationship between Star Alliance and Lufthansa. However, these type of business-level cooperative strategies present challenges with perception of loyalty, and speculation of illegal collusive activities this feeds into the discussion  of other risks. Lufthansa has faced some friction with regard to making compromises counter to its culture. However; the use of the cooperative strategies such as the alliance formed with Star Alliance proves reasonable given the high uncertainty of the industry and risk associated with pursing growth opportunities independently. It is considerably important to evaluate these uncertainties and challenges when pursing business outside of the national boundaries. The risk of a network cooperative alliance such as Star Alliance carries the risk of opportunistic behavior. What may have initially been viewed as a partnership, could become compromised with potential for failure due in part to a false perception of trustworthiness amongst members. (Hitt, 2008) Additional risk, may also include misrepresentation; full disclosure of what each member can bring to table and imbalance of alliance-specific investments as detailed with the example partnership of Disney and Pixar within the text. With regard to Lufthansa and its compromises counter to standards, these challenges were revealed in the case study and make mention of compromises made throughout the years running counter to the culture of Lufthansa. An important example of this was the mention of the IT component, and the belief that the customer interfacing with electronic check in completion was less than desirable, and not in alignment with the Lufthansa standard with response to customers. However, collaboration of Star Alliance IT infrastructure would rob Lufthansa IT systems of their customers (Hitt, 2009). Consideration of current globalization trends and future efforts of the airline industry must be evaluated operating outside of national boundaries. An analysis of the varying social culture and institutional attributes of global markets require evaluation. Strategic leadership involves the analyzing of the environment in order to identify and an anticipate changes and trends that are likely to occur. An analysis focusing on strengths, weaknesses, threat, and opportunities (SWOT), should be conducted in order to properly evaluate the industry environment. The risks associated with operating beyond national boundaries or Germany as in the case with Lufthansa would benefit from evaluating a competitive model such as the five  forces competitive model as a method of gaining knowledge about the industry inclusive of Threats of new entrants, Bargaining power of suppliers, Rivalry among competing firms, Threat of substitute product, and Bargaining power of buyers (Hit, 2009) The evaluation of the organizations structure and controls of Lufthansa indicate a great deal of complexity that requires extensive management. Given that the organizational structure is the foundational support for the organization and specifies the organization’s formal reporting relationships, procedures controls, authority and decisions making aspects it is imperative that the structure is solid but with room for flexibility as changes arise. The case study touches upon the six business lines within Lufthansa and the strategic mission of the organization to unite every aspect of the organization under one â€Å"strategy roof†. The Aviation Group has streamlined much of its endeavors inclusive of the dissolving of the once â€Å"integrated† cooperation. Strategic controls of this nature include improving the flow of communication between management and front line employees and translating the over arching values of the organization into â€Å"leadership values†. Providing a degree of accountability, to every employee with targets, and dialogue with management about their endeavors through an annual evaluation. There is an aggressive effort to restructure the business model focusing on cost cutting and streamlining anything that may be impacting the cash flow significantly. Strategic and Financial controls are necessary to maintain a balance within the organization, thus the use of a balance score card would be ideal. This score card would serve as a check and balance system between what the organization has set out to accomplish and strategic and financial controls used to assess their performance. The old adage â€Å"if you can’t measure it, you can’t manage it† lends to the legitimacy of using such controls. An example of such a financial control for Lufthansa was the elimination of discounted tickets used by independent travel agencies and promotion of direct booking using the internet or call centers. Financial operating goals have become a high priority with a direct focus on intervening in areas which impact the cash flow. Lufthansa has demonstrated  great resiliency given its financial crises during the 1990’s, now holding a positive investment grade rating. Given that experience the organization is prepared to implement controls in order to maintain financial discipline in avoidance of succumbing to financial failure. Improving the organizational structure requires making a significant investment in its Human Capital this means developing the leadership skills of individuals within the organization. Many believe that the human element in any organization is most important. The word â€Å"Capital† is typically referred to as an asset that can be utilized in the production of more wealth. Therefore investing in what one would consider as its most valuable assets â€Å"human capital† , productivity is likely to increase. Lufthansa should begin with an organization wide initiative aimed at restoring the trust and loyalty of its employees. There is such a rich history of Lufthansa dating back to the 1930’s and employees should be reminded of this history built on quality and pride at one time to be a â€Å"Lufthanseat†. The message of â€Å"value† i.e. corporate values, and how valuable every employee is, can be incorporated into the current town halls held and worked into the â€Å"corporate university† curriculum. The organization has become quite complex with the many subsidiaries, strategic alliances and acquisitions that perhaps the employees doing the front line work feel left out of the loop. There should be a financial investment made in providing effective training and development programs tailored to every employee within the organization. Every employee within an organization can benefit from continued education and learning opportunities. Continuing learning and leveraging the firms expanding knowledge base are linked with strategic success (Hitt, 2009). A concerted effort by management and workforce education professionals should be made to development up and coming managers and future leadership. Developing relationships inside and outside of the organization inclusive of those organizations partnered with enhances the social capital of the organization. Given the competitive nature of the job airline industry, it would prove advantageous for Lufthansa to use their strategic alliances to foster their social capital positively. It is inconceivable to envision an organization reaching is maximum potential without cultivating its organizational culture and defining its mission and vision. The case study divulges occurrences where the workforce has become fragmented with varying interests, perceptions, communication channels and expectations. This is evidence that the organizational culture inclusive of ideologies, symbols and core values must be addressed and strategically in alignment with the vision of the organization (Hitt, 2009). Competencies can be derived and influenced by the organizational culture in order produce desired outcomes. The culture of the organization should positively impact its workforce, fostering an environment of innovation, transparent communication and trust, and in the case of Lufthansa a commitment to quality and upholding of standards. Strategic Leadership means focusing on incremental changes, with celebration of small success to maintain the momentum of the cultural change. Top leadership must fully buy-in to the cultural change endeavors in order to ensure its success. The selection of management and employees at all level with an intrinsic desire to contribute to the organization in a positive manner is important. There should be a sincere desire to act responsibly and ethically and avoidance of opportunistic behavior and other behavior which could destructive to the culture of the organization. A positive organizational culture feeds an entrepreneurial spirit and opportunities within an organization. The importance of entrepreneurial opportunities cannot be under stated. This entrepreneurial-state of mind facilitates the energy and enthusiasm necessary to promote innovative â€Å"out of the box† thinking. The freedom of expression, sharing of ideas, and asking the â€Å"Why† questions is tremendously valuable to an organization such as Lufthansa and any organization interested in competing globally. The five dimensions of autonomy, innovativeness, risk taking, proactivenesss and competitive aggressiveness should be capitalized upon throughout training initiatives and encouraged in order to create an entrepreneurial mind set work force. The workforce should be challenged to come up with better, faster; more efficient was of accomplishing tasks or streamlining processes, and recognized by Lufthansa Leadership for doing so. Lufthansa has expressed and exercised a number of initiatives aimed at reducing complexity of its organization. The dissolving of business segments and evaluation of process improvement strategies all serve as advances towards building an organizations model in alignment with business simplicity versus that of complex nature. Lufthansa can experience tremendous simplicity in appropriately managing the various business elements within the organization by acquiring a global mind set, and providing flexibility to address the need of each segment. An in depth look at core competencies and measurement of how much value each segment is contributing to the overall success of the organization and how the internal characteristics of the organization measure up to the competition ; meeting the needs of the customer is a great starting place. The environmental uncertainty of the airline industry and other customer base for the varying business units does increase the complexity and range of iss ues to consider when evaluating the internal environment (Hitt, 2009); however, it is essential in order to understand the organizational complexity in its entirety. Ashby’s Law of Variety suggests that organization can handle high external complexity on by a similar internal complexity (Hitt, 2009). Recommendations regarding the reduction of complexity are as follows: †¢Development of a unified vision that is shared across the organization, in an effort to eliminate the diversity of values, aims, cultures and types of behavior. †¢A shared global strategy communicated throughout the organization in the fulfillment of a common goal. †¢Education regarding the benefits of a culturally diverse workforce; recruitment of a diverse work force with varying ethical and professional backgrounds yet committed to the success of Lufthansa and a shared vision. †¢Standardizing of processes and norms throughout the organization Lufthansa possess the organizational know how and strategic leadership to face future uncertainties of the airline industry. It has proved its strength and resiliency in its survival of a turbulent industry and shows promising potential despite uncertainties regarding global warming issues. Here education is key and it would be advantageous for Lufthansa to continue fostering positive social relationships with environmental agencies and other social activities.

Leadership Characteristics Essay

Abstract Today, in our society, especially in healthcare, the word leadership is on everyone’s mind. Finding good leaders has become one of the highest priorities in large and small organizations. But how we define leadership and what should we be looking for in a good leader will be the questions we explore in this paper. This paper is meant to be a summarized reflection of my thoughts and beliefs on leadership. It will evaluate where I stand at the beginning of this course with regard to the characteristics of leadership I possess. It will explore some of the realities that confront leaders within the healthcare industry. It will examine some of my past experiences, personal and professional, in order to learn who I am as a leader and where I need to go to be an effective leader. key word: self awareness, leadership, realities In the 21st century when globalization and open business opportunity among countries has created an atmosphere of either flourish or perish, the necessity of dynamic and effective leadership is gaining prime importance all over the world. Successful leaders are becoming the scarcest resource of any business enterprise. Over the past years the health care industry has evolved putting more pressure on the health care leaders of today. Success in the long run for these leaders can be insured only through effective leadership. William Shakespeare once said, â€Å"To be or not to be that is the question†. The question every inspiring leader in today’s society must ask of themselves. Leadership according to Northouse (2007, p. 3) â€Å"is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal†. As I continue to read and research this definition of leadership it has brought me to question how does a leader influence others to achieve that common goal? Where do I stand within this leadership definition and what do I need to accomplish as I pursue my leadership desire? In order to accomplish my desire to become a good leader I must understand the characteristics I possess and those I do not. Leaders, whether good or bad influence people, maybe not in the way that the organization benefits from but influence just the same. A good leader will have good work ethics, good communication skills, lead by example, have a desire to achieve the vision and goals of the organization, obtain trust from the organization and their team members, have a drive and desire to see a need for change and act on it when needed, and have a desire to learn from others within the team. Realities Some of the realities that face leaders today are the ever changing work environments. As technology evolves, as our workforce becomes more diverse in skills and culture we as leaders need to be adaptable and ready to make changes. Good leaders need to continue educating themselves through any means possible and be willing to educate those on their teams. As a leader in the health care industry I agree with some current trends confronting the health care system today as seen in Exhibit 1. 1 in our text Leadership in Healthcare (Dye, 2010. p. 5) Growing number of uninsured Increased emphasis on patient safety and equality Diminished revenue sources and decreased reimbursement Uncertain implications of healthcare reform Pressures to invest in electronic record systems and other clinical/information technologies Demands to hold down costs Closer scrutiny of pay-for-performance schemes Aging of the population and changes in worker and patient ethic/cultural demographics Higher expectations from consumers Professional shortages and decreasing recruitment pools Need for building renovation/construction and equipment purchase Rise of social media, Internet commerce, and wireless functionality Advances in Pharmaceuticals, genomics, and medical interventions Public calls for transparency and accountability, and growth of regulations Physician integration and alignment, including the employment of physicians These trends will continue to exist unless the leaders of today and tomorrow learn to be adaptable and progress through the changes or they will be left behind. And the more the complex system is the more demands are on the leaders to perform. History As I was growing up, I never thought of my parents as leaders. On a personal level, in reality they are leaders. Whether bad or good they influence us, as their children, to accomplish goals. Abraham Lincoln once said in his Temperance Address, February 22, 1942, â€Å"When the conduct of men is designed to be influenced, persuasion, kind, unassuming persuasion, should ever be adopted. It is an old and true maxim, that a â€Å"drop of honey catches more flies than a gallon of gall†. (leadershipnow. com) My father was (the boss) an Authoritarian leader. He had always told us what he wanted done and how he wanted it done. (Clark, 2004) I never knew this was a style of leadership as I was growing up but I did know this was not a good way to influence others. Although a leader possesses authority to accomplish goals the power does not make anyone a leader. A good leader will influence people to want to follow them â€Å"rather than simply boss them around†. (Clark, 2004). Reflection The question whether or not a leader is born or taught is yet to be questioned. To refer to a particular individual as a â€Å"natural born leader† I believe is somewhat deceptive, however, an individual can certainly possess a number of the characteristics that are consistent with desirable leadership. Today, as I reflect on my own evaluation of my Professional and Personal Values (Dye, 2010) I have realized I do possess some of the characteristics of a good leader. For instance, I always try to lead by example. I will never ask a subordinate to do something I am not willing to do myself. In my current position I am a Medical Office Coordinator at a physical therapy facility. I am the second in command under the director of the clinic. The previous coordinator would always have the technicians do all the cleaning and filing for her. I believe as an employee within this clinic, to achieve the goals of the clinic, I have an obligation to influence those who work within our team. Also, I have a good work ethic and always have a desire to achieve goals. According to others, that evaluated me, some common characteristics I possess are that I always have respect for my team and keep my word. That I have a desire to learn from others and have a respect for their opinions. For example, as our team was getting ready to purge patient files and making room for new patient files we discovered we needed more room. As a common goal for the clinic we as a team came together and put in place a procedure that accomplished this goal. As the teams leader I could have just demanded a way to make more room or could have just told them to do it any way but I thought since all of the team members were working on the same goal, patient care, we all needed to work on this task together. Room for Improvement Although I do possess characteristics of a good leader there is always room for improvement. I tend to avoid conflict. I avoid conflict in fear of disappointing someone on the team. This is also where I lack in communication skills and trust in myself to know whatever the conflict I should be able to listen and evaluate the conflict and try to solve the issue. Although, I do have good communication skills when it comes to relaying the message with regards to goals and what is expected of my team members I still feel I need to enhance my conflict resolution skills. When I became the Medical Office Coordinator for the physical therapy clinic I knew I needed to work closely with the director of the clinic. The director was new within our clinic and she was not flexible in her schedule to accommodate the patient’s needs. At first, it was hard to deal with this and I was not able to bring this conflict to her attention in a positive way to effectively resolve the problem. As weeks went on I saw that it was affecting my desire to be there. Ultimately, the director was fired due to her lack of commitment to the clinic. As I look back on it I realize now that maybe if I would have communicated to her the dilemma I was facing we could have come to a resolution and maybe she would still be there. There is so much more yet to learn. As I read through the Self-Reflection Questions (Dye, Garman, 2006) there is so much more to being a good leader than just leading by example and inspiring my team. I now realize I need to have a clear vision of my personal conviction, emotional intelligence, trust, a desire to achieve goals and inspiring others.

Germans & germany Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Germans & germany - Essay Example It is also a responsibility to protect the minority groups in the country from brutal treatment. It is an expression of humanity to the survivors and a show of responsibility to prevent crimes in the society (Cottrell 1). The memorial is a dedication to the Jews victims of the wars after the war in Germany. It does not technically keep out concentration camps Jews who suffered the fate of death at old age or from diseases. The title is appropriate, and no better title would fit the memorial than its apparent title. The Washington museum is a remembrance of the criminal activities that occurred during the killing of the Jews. It has a comprehensive history of the holocaust through artifacts and eyewitness testimonials, in the form of movies and films. It also has artifacts as well as photographs of the occurrences. However, there is no national monument on the victims of crime. This is because the slavery and genocide did not occur in the country. It would only be advisable to build the monument at the spot of the crime rather than in Washington. The tale of Emmaly Reed’s is a moving account, touching and reveals the reality of the brutality that the Nazis victims experienced. Her imprisonment for twelve years shows the extent of suffering that the victims underwent. She exposes the hangings that imprisoned victims underwent during the slavery and genocide that occurred. Cottrell, Chris. Memorial to Roma Holocaust Victims Opens in Berlin. The New York Times. October 24, 2012. Web. May 5, 2013. Retrieved from:

What issues were resolved by the Compromise of 1850 Who benefited more Research Paper

What issues were resolved by the Compromise of 1850 Who benefited more from its terms, the North or the South Why - Research Paper Example By 1847, however, the Courts of the United States were declaring that the Constitution was ultimate, and that slavery was a political, not a legal issue (Jones v. Van Zandt, 1847: General History of the United Sates Supreme Court, 2011)). The Missouri Compromise – which declared that Congress could exclude slavery from Missouri Territory north of the 36-degree, 30-minute line – meant that the political, rather than the legal battle about slavery had started. The Southern States, represented in the feelings of John Calhoun, felt as if they had been disadvantaged: â€Å"†¦ the fact that the equilibrium between the two sections in the government as it stood when the Constitution was ratified and the government put in action has been destroyed.† (Calhoun speech, 1850). He continued: the Southern States of the Union were extremely dissatisfied with conditions as they were and that this dissatisfaction had been growing since the question of slavery had arisen. The point had been reached at which the Southern States could not remain in the Union with â€Å"honor and safety† (Calhoun speech, 1850) if things remained as they were. Slavery was, of course not the only source of the dissatisfaction: the imbalance of power between North and South was also unacceptable. According to Calhoun, the North exercised far more political power than the South. In addition, racial attitudes in the North and South differed so widely as to be irreconcilable. For these reasons, the South was left with few choices. These States would have to agree to the abolition of slavery, or secede from the Union. Calhoun proposed that the North would have to hold the Union together by force and its superior numbers and wealth. The Northern States had more voting power, and Southern States had become increasingly geographically isolated from the rest of the Union. The Southern States with direct access to ports, for example, could afford to secede, in the hope that they

Ruskins Influence on Victorian Architecture Essay

Ruskins Influence on Victorian Architecture - Essay Example For many years, theorists in Victoria believed that a building not only conveyed meanings but also communicate these meanings in deep precision.1 The meanings communicated vary widely from the society, past, present, the architect, occupants, materials, man, God, its functions, among other meanings, all encoded in its form. However, most Victorian authors believed that between the Middle Ages and the 19th century, the unique architecture in Victoria lost its identity and meaning, and had become dishonest, empty and irrelevant.1 Ruskin was called a prophet and a true polymath with thorough knowledge of the Bible, which he deeply knew, and intimately meditated by heart.2 He was later to use this knowledge to reform this art that had lost meaning. Due to this immense understanding, Ruskin sought to know more and understand the world around him, and would later become a reformer to remedy the evils of a â€Å"dissolutely reforming and vulgarly manufacturing age.†3 Ruskin saw an En gland that had sacrificed, and ignored the love of man, and had embraced the love of wealth and progress, which was honesty to self-interests. 1. Kaufman N.E., (1982). The weight and vigor of their masses: mid-Victorian churches and the lamp of Power in the Ruskin Polygon. Manchester: John Dixon Hunt., p30 2. Atwood, S.E., (2006). â€Å"A cowslip form an oxlip and a blackthorn form a white:† Ruskin’s educational; philosophy and Fors Clavigera. UMI, Ann Arbor, 48106-1346., p1 3. Craig, D.M., (2004). Naves and Nukes: John Ruskin as â€Å"Augustinian† social theorist? Journal of Religious Ethics, 32(2); pp325-356. Ruskin remarked that the world had forgotten and done way with its soul, and has to be brought back to the things that determined its peace and coexistence.4 It was due to the immorality in the society that Ruskin developed a moral philosophy, which he taught through architectural works and drawings. For example, he likened buildings with sentiment beings remarking that the wall should be â€Å"like an organized creature†, which answer, and can end in living energetically. Generally, Ruskin remarked how wonderful it would be to read buildings, and how more wonderful it would be, if these buildings could speak to people.5 Ruskin aim was to transform the society in England through his deep moral teachings, and love for nature that represented coexistence and harmony. His â€Å"logical drives through deep religious impulses was not a clerical career but was more of a prophetic one†.6 Through his artistic work Ruskin, continued to advocate social reforms, though he declined any pretensions of leadership.6 To explain his simplicity and value for home as representing families, Ruskin had much if his paintings on domestic architecture. Ruskin had a love for picturesque, the essence of a house as a home, and the idea that a home has to be built by the inhabitants.7 Largely, Ruskin opened a new dimension in artistic work where he saw artistic work, and economic life as mutually reinforcing realms of human entity, either for good or bad, depending on the social relationships that govern the two.8 His treasure on unity and aesthetic is found when he defended the gothic style in terms of its appreciation for higher and lower nature of all things.9 4. Masterfield, J. (1920).

Funeral Customs of Hispanics and Italians Essay

Funeral Customs of Hispanics and Italians - Essay Example As well, in some cultures, men and women are treated differently. In order to come to a more clear and knowledgeable understanding on this subject matter, we will be thoroughly investigating and appropriating the funeral customs of two cultures in particular: Hispanics and Italians. The aim of this paper is to thoroughly discuss all of the key elements involved in Hispanic and Italian funerals; the customs, the beliefs, the traditions, as well as any and all other key elements in regards to this. By doing this, we will come to a more intellectual and understanding viewpoint on the issue at hand. This is what will be dissertated in the following. According to the U.S. Census 2000, the largest minority population belongs to people of Hispanic origin. Although this population might share the same language - Spanish - they might be of any race. Furthermore, their spiritual belief systems might vary depending upon their current or historic country of origin. Therefore, as they plan for honoring the departure of their loved ones, cultural differences will often times emerge and will therefore need to be considered. Hispanics are often more accepting of death because it is such a part of their religion and heritage. In fact, Mexico and Puerto Rico observe The Day of the Dead each year. Like African Americans, for example, Hispanics express their grief openly at funerals, with most customs following the Orthodox-Catholic service. Some, however, reflect earlier influences. "For example, small yellow flowers strewn about the house or on the path to the cemetery mirror Aztec traditions for Mexican Americans." (Planner, 2006). In regards to Italian funeral customs, there are few similarities with many more significant differences. The Italian village system of behavior surrounding death and burial has endured through the Italians' emigration, with the most striking characteristic of the persisting funeral pattern being that of the fact that the pattern itself is in fact borrowed. The rural Italian family will deprive itself of limited comforts and will sacrifice any small reserve it might have accumulated in order to pay for the funeral expenses including new clothes for the deceased. "In fact, behavior surrounding death and burial so permeates daily life in the rural south that the peasants may be described as 'death oriented'." (Moss & Thompson, 1959, pp.35-41). Funeral expenditures are considered to be a necessity, however regardless of disproportion to the other expenses of life. In order to calm the soul, useful objects such as cigarettes and matches and small change are placed near the body, and objects which the deceased had been particularly fond of are sent with him in the casket. "If something of importance was forgotten it would often be sent in the casket of another villager who died later with hope that the two souls would meet." (Mathias, n.d.). As well, in order that the soul would not be able to find its way back into the house if it returned, the body was always carried out by the feet first; by not seeing the door as it left it would not be able to locate it again later. Once the funeral itself is over, the mattress of the deathbed is taken out and washed and a meal is brought from a neighbor's house for the family and close friends. It is with this meal that the acts directly concerned with the funeral are ended. "From now o n the soul will be assisted

Ruby & Millie Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Ruby & Millie - Essay Example Although neither of the entrepreneurs has any managerial background, they are extensively experienced in their respective fields. Firstly, Ruby has immense practice as a make-up artist having worked with celebrated supermodels, for instance, Naomi Campbell, Kate Moss and Cindy Crawford. On the other hand, Millie Kendall has a lot of experience as a high-powered beauty specialist. Both entrepreneurs gifted in the performance of their duties within their distinct professionals. Part of the skills that enable the two professionals to become formidable entrepreneurs is creativity and effective decision making based on good ideas (Begoun 2003, p. 16). The professionals are high achievers who think of good ideas and establish viable goals to achieve their objectives. Through their confidence, the entrepreneurs have the capacity to counter challenges, which come their way. Creativity and enthusiasm are perhaps the most pertinent skills held by both professionals. Millie and Ruby have substa ntial enthusiasm and creative energy, which supplements their experience within the beauty industry. Having worked in the industry for a while, both entrepreneurs are knowledgeable of market’s needs and the gap that necessitates the development of appropriate products. Competition in the Cosmetics Industry The cosmetics industry in Britain is quite competitive consisting of nearly 250 manufacturers and 695 retailers who either manufacture or sell cosmetic products at retail stores. However, most premium cosmetics in the UK are selectively distributed and are confined to a few renowned retailers and manufacturers. Ruby & Millie’s strongest competitors include Selective Beauty SAS, which manufactures and distributes cosmetics through a global network. Selective Beauty SAS entered an exclusive 10-year licensing agreement with Jimmy Choo, the famous accessories and shoes brand (Hillgren & Cheatham 2000, p. 139). Other key competitors include high street stores such as Supe r drugs and Body shop, which sell cosmetics on a large scale. Departmental stores such as Harrods, Debenhams and Nichols, are also some of Ruby & Millie’s primary competitors. Other competitors include supermarkets such as ASDA and Waitrose and specialist websites such as Mac.com, which specialize in direct selling (Roese 2005, p. 154). In order to differentiate their products and brand, Ruby & Millie embarked on a personality-driven make-up strategy (Daniels 1999, p. 78). Ruby & Millie’s brand’s uniqueness stems from the entrepreneurs’ gifted personal profiles. The association of Ruby & Millie with Boots continues to impact the brand’s positioning within the competitive cosmetics market. Cooperation with Boots When small businesses cooperate with greater manufacturers, the former benefit from both the large organization’s exposure and market experience (Hammer & Kendall, p. 108). Ruby & Millie’s cooperation with Boots, which is a mas sive and globally renowned company, allows the former to benefit from Boot’s immense knowledge of the cosmetics market. Since Boots is a massive company, it enjoys economies of trade such as effective and easy research and development, particularly with regard to product positioning and assessment of market needs (Schippmann 1999, p. 97). Consequently, Ruby & Millie’s small business gains pertinent information regarding the cosmetics market enabling the organization position its products and

IT Strategy class paper - Read case and discuss current challenges & Study

IT Strategy class paper - Read and discuss current challenges & recommendations - Case Study Example The industry gradually gave birth to other related industries like elevator services, maintenance etc (Otisline, 2). Otis Elevators always remained on top of the competition. Since the time it was founded, it managed to form and maintain its reputation as the best in the industry of elevators. The fact that it provided services along with the product made it even more popular and the quality remained credible. Owing to its reputation customers were often willing to pay premium price for Otis’ services (Otisline, 1). Otis elevators had three branches: Otis Hydraulics (for up to 6 story buildings), Otis Geared (for 24 story buildings) and Otis Gearless for higher buildings. The state-of-the-art elevators with higher capacity than usual, Otis was customers’ first choice (Otisline, 1). Otis was divided in four geographical areas: North American Operations, Latin American Operations, Pacific Area Operations and European Transcontinental Operations. North American Operation (NAO) had the most widely dispersed customer base because of the large geographical area it catered to and also because there was a variety of customers to attend. The need to develop easy communication with the customers occurred and so Otisline was formed (Otisline, 1). Otisline was the main customer service centre of Otis NAO. It was established so that customers could easily contact the company, give feedback, lodge complaints etc. This way, Otis secured its customers’ loyalty by developing easy communication. Otis was a decentralized organization but the new system it installed, Otisline, was centralized. A centralized system was launched for focusing on faster responses to callbacks. Customer’s rate quality of services according to the way they are responded by the firm and the time it takes for responding. Commercial answering services were used for non-prime-time call backs and the

Entreprenurship ENTREPRENEURSHIP Assignment Question (2000 words) Essay

Entreprenurship ENTREPRENEURSHIP Assignment Question (2000 words) Entrepreneurs are believed to create their opp - Essay Example They further observe that entrepreneurs have certain characteristics that enable them to handle situations where there is incomplete decision or make decisions when confronted by conflicting status. Literature Review They describe such situations that entrepreneurs find themselves as comfortable and that in difficult situations; they still exhibit calm and comfort ability. Secondly, the authors use five words to describe an entrepreneur and they include; self-starters, optimists, perseverant, energetic and action oriented. This attributes reflect the ability of the entrepreneur to see a new opportunity. Moreover, entrepreneurs have the ability to persuade others and form networks that give create situations, which eventually heighten their chances of finding opportunities. These individuals exploit the resources people offer by interacting and engaging with others in addition to being highly innovative and imaginative. They are not afraid to take risks and have the ability to create opportunities where others might consider as hostile environment or situations. In their pursuit of opportunities, entrepreneurs remain open to change and employ their analytical skills to evaluate situations and come up with new ideas that propel their ambitions. It is these attributes that some argue that enable entrepreneurs to engineer situations in a way that increase their chances of finding opportunities. The entrepreneurship process entails identifying, recognizing, evaluating and exploiting opportunities that introduce new goods, services and ways of organization by applying efforts that had hitherto not existed or exploited (Shane and Venkataraman, 2000). Entrepreneurship therefore calls for the existence of exploitable opportunities or situations that entrepreneurs can modify to increase their chances of finding those opportunities, which provide platforms for the use of new means-ends structures to recombine resources to achieve a certain goal. Accordingly, opportunities are an essential part of the entrepreneurial process; indeed, the existence of varied opportunities can offer a viable explanation for the patterns that are observed in the entrepreneurial process. The existence of opportunities coupled with the entrepreneur’s ability to effectively engineer situations in a manner that puts them at an advantage of finding opportunities to exploit largely makes the distinction between a great entrepreneur and others. Entrepreneurial opportunity is defined as a situation that aids the possibility of an individual creating new means-ends structures for exploiting available resources that the said individual believes will be profitable (Shane, 2010). Entrepreneurs identify these favourable set of environments that create opportunities for creation of a new manufactured goods, business or service; besides, they all recognize situations that can heighten their chances of discovering entrepreneurial opportunities. An entrepreneurial opportunity is not just an idea and is believed to have four essential qualities. The opportunity has to be timely, attractive to the cause, long-lasting and augmented in a product, service or business that generates or adds value for its buyer or end user. The prospect must be open for an

Can GPS (Global Positioning Systems) Guided Earthworks Construction Dissertation

Can GPS (Global Positioning Systems) Guided Earthworks Construction Reduce Or Eliminate Golf Course Shaper Costs - Dissertation Example This project declares that the GPS tracking system available to the public are easily decrypted, thus revealing the message. Encryption is the key protection that GPS uses. The signals are encrypted using various coding methods before transmission and is encrypted via decryption tools once it reached the receiving node. Interception can happen while the signal is transferred from the sender to the receiver, and none of the two nodes will have the slightest idea that the readings are faulty. This paper makes a conclusion that GPS automatically uses UTC time update to synchronize its time reading, as discrepancies with time intervals, even to its littlest differentials, would cause faulty readings. GPS satellites are monitored constantly within 789-second duration. Calculations of the location are computed using at least three satellite points. â€Å"Common-view is the use of specially arranged, simultaneous view measurements, that maximize satellite elevation angles between pairs of stations (USNO GPS Time Transfer, n.d).† almost 50 laboratories participate in synchronizing the time transfer. It is notable that strict compliance to the time measure is rigorously observed. Through the use of the GPS, the time that it takes for an entire golf course to be finished can be decreased significantly. This is due to the fact that using GPS needs lesser time to complete the shape of the golf course than using actual golf shapers.

Trace the historical development of physical education Essay Example for Free

Trace the historical development of physical education Essay Trace the historical development of physical education and discuss the effects that these developments have had on your opportunities to develop performance in your chosen activities The historical development of physical education has had a significant effect on my opportunities and personal performance. I will be investigating the effect of historical development of physical education by looking at various Acts made during the past two centuries, especially in schools and the various forms of physical education lessons which have been used in the past. In the nineteenth century there were two distinct traditions in education Public Schools and State Elementary Schools. Public schools were for the gentry and were fee paying. They were usually non-local, residential and were single sex schools. The students played many games and concentrated on the characteristic of leadership and teamwork. They would regularly play these games and develop the rules which had recreational values. The facilities were good due to the fees paid. Physical Education has developed dramatically in public and private schools since. Education in this country started with private schooling for the social elite. Pupils enjoyed extensive facilities and focused on the character building aims of education, as preparation for responsibilities in later life as employers, officers, members of the clergy and so on. Competitive team games developed to serve these aims. There was always a concentration on sport rather than a physical education emphasis and this is still common today. Competitive fixtures are a recognised feature and the reputation from winning helps to distinguish different schools. During the eighteenth and nineteenth century State Elementary schools were for lower class people. They were free, cramped and had mixed sexes. The type of teaching was associated with military drills and Swedish gymnastics, and was more based on physical training. The lessons low status and there was lots of foreign influence. The students were valued for discipline and the training was to get them fit for war. They were more interested in social control values recreational and educational values were learnt later on. This is also changed dramatically over the years. State education began after the Forster Education Act 1870 which initiated compulsory schooling for all. In the state system physical education is compulsory and is a core subject of the National Curriculum. The class teacher is usually in charge, though is not usually a specialist. The content of the lessons is usually based on movement and ball skills. Learning by moving and doing is considered essential to the physical, emotional, intellectual and social education of young children. Variety is also important as concentration span is limited and stimulating activities need to be included. In addition to the curriculum, many schools also offer club activities like gymnastics, netball, soccer, country dancing, etc. Another major historical development was when a man called Thomas Arnold encouraged moral features of teamwork such as self discipline, loyalty, courage, character building qualities and leaders. By mid nineteenth century headmasters and staff in public schools started to organise sports. This helped with the development of games. There was local variation of games to schools from villages, the students played regularly and in their free time, school rules, skills and boundaries were developed, teams played competitively, the boys organised a self government, codified rules and inter-school fixtures began and there was the development of games elite. Athleticism was the physical endeavour with moral integrity. The cult of athleticism stressed the physical and social benefits of sports. Physical benefits were seen to cancel out the effects of inactive lifestyles. Sport was seen as therapeutic, invigorating and beneficial. It was a break from work. Sport could take place in a competitive situation which would help the boys to cope with winning and losing in a dignified manner. This in turn developed leadership qualities e.g. being captain was a high status office to hold and inspiring to many of the other students. The performance was seen as more important than the result. Athleticism also met middle class values of respectability and order. Values of sportsmanship, leadership and abiding by the rules. There were people who were against the idea of athleticism. They said that it lead to regimentation of boys thoughts and behaviour with destruction of individuality, and believed that students were finding it more important the their other studies. Old boys brought games from universities with codified rules and philosophy to excel at their sport. This contributed to technical development and improved standards. Sports Day was also introduced which gave a chance for old boys, parents and governors a chance to relate to exercise. Athleticism brought about an old boys/girls network, sports clubs and governing bodies became significant administrative features, officers in army and navy influential on troops, clergy influenced parishioners, teachers went back into schools, employers encouraged games in their workforce and the empire enabled these developments to be spread world wide. Overall it can be seen that athleticism was a benefit in developing physical education and it still carries on in todays sport. Female Education also helped development in physical education. In the late 1800s education for girls was very poor, pretentious and costly. Accomplishment for society was not intellectual development and competitiveness was not socially acceptable for women. Muscles bound was not good for childbearing and was a threat to the normal behaviour. Due to wealth in the 19th century there was more leisure time and the women were more hard headed, had more common sense and groups of middle class women overcame prejudice. The Schools Inquiry Commission 1868 was important, and in 1881, universities recognised the girls fulfilled degree requirements of boys. In 1898 there was the endowed Schools Act where by 80 girls were endowed. And by 1900 there were 36 public schools for girls, and by the 1918 Act gave girls the same education as boys. miss Bergman wrote the Teachers Encyclopaedia which introduced the principal games in girls school hockey, cricket, basketball and lacrosse. She also saw the benefit of tennis but felt students were already reasonable proficient from their social backgrounds. Womens athletics emerged in the last 1/4 of the nineteenth century. Physical activity developed later. The development was linked to sociological factors. When prejudicial attitudes began to change, girls began to participate in activities such as tennis, hockey, gymnastics and cricket. Social games like tennis allowed a mixture of sexes. Female participation in physical activity have helped to develop my opportunities to develop performance as tennis was one of the first sports women were allowed to play. The ladies were able to play privately away from the public gaze, and it was a game which helped to remove some of the stereotypes. They could run around becoming increasingly energetic and clothing began to be slightly less restrictive. Schools also accepted the game as it was non-contact, had rules and was acceptable to the parents. The middle classes also ensured its club development and the administrative structures. The lower classes had to wait until there was public provision, so their participation was delayed. Real tennis was similar it was the sport of the noblemen and royalty and in 1536 there were restrictive acts which forbade servants and labourers to play. This helped to retain the privileged status of the elite. The game was originally played with the hand but the development of rackets led to this being a more popular way of playing. It was a very sophisticated, exclusive game requiring expensive facilities, equipment and an understanding of the complex rules and social etiquette of the game. The Model Course was a major development of physical education. This course encouraged a policy of drills and physical training, but little recreational value. In 1902 the Model Course was instituted by Colonel Fox of the War Office. The aim was to improve the fitness of working class for military preparation, increase familiarity with combat and weapons, and improve discipline and obedience amongst the working class. The drills were done in uniform, in military rows with the students obeying commands. The problem was, they were teaching adult exercises to children. This model was not taking the needs of physical and mental development into account. There was no educative content and individualism. The teachers were not qualified and were of a lower status. Due to the problems the Board of Education established syllabus of physical training in 1904, 1909, 1919, 1927 and 1933. These stressed the physical and educative effect of sport. The physical content of the syllabus was influenced by the primary concern for medical and physiological base from which they approached the subject. Therapeutic effect, correction of posture faults, exercises to improve circulatory system were foremost in the aims. The educational aims were to develop alertness and decision making. The 1919 syllabus had consideration in loss of life in World War 1 and the flu epidemic after. The 1933 syllabus was more do to with the freedom of movement and was more decentralised. There was a recognition of the increasing rights of the working class and development of educational value of group word. Millions died in World War I, and so public schoolmen had ideals of service to the country and were enthusiastic about conflict. Following the war there were hopes of a more equal society due to massive loss of life sustained from all levels of power and responsibility of society. After World War II the Butler Education Act 1944 was introduced. This was a major social reform in Britain, it removed special privileges and ensured equality of opportunity to all. There were 146 local education authorities which provided recreational facilities, the leaving school age was 15, education in grammar schools was free and the 11 plus was introduced, new secondary schools were built, there were more mature forms of P.E. and the 1944 McNair Report gave physical education teachers the same status as other teachers. The rebuilding program after the war helped develop physical education. The facilities became more sophisticated, more physical education teachers were enlisted and there was a movement away from therapeutic and medical values and more emphasis on heuristic and guidance style of teaching. The movement approach was also introduced. Children used their initiative and learnt by discovery. Other major developments were that team games were giving way to more individual pursuits, travel was now available to all classes, the motor car enabled mobility fro even the working classes and air travel had become commonplace for sport teams which also resulted in an increase in competitions. Television had a major impact on sports, creating interest in new heroes in sports otherwise unknown to millions. National and international standards rose at the expense of school performances. Local authorities were supplying more recreational facilities such as swimming baths, adventure playgrounds etc. The development of National Parks opened up the countryside and encouraged outdoor activities. People were more free to choose their leisure pursuits than ever before. The Moving and Growing Programme was also a major development in the history of physical education. There were two publications Ministry of Education 1952 and 1953. The had influences of obstacle training from the army and movement training from centres of dance. There was also circuit training, weight training (progressive resistance training) and there was Outward Bound Schools promoting adventurous activities to develop personalities within natural environment in challenging conditions. This was more of a child centred approach, and as a result of educational thinking physical education teachers were now autonomous with personal control over the physical education syllabus. The activities included agility, playground and more major game skills, dance and movement to music, national dance and swimming. This was more exploratory, creative, individual and fun. Due to this programme many more activities have become available in schools curriculum, and these sports have become more ad venturous and our knowledge has increased over the years on these sports. The National Curriculum attempts to raise standard in education and make schools more accountable for what they teach. Physical Education is compulsory from the ages of 5-16. There are attainment targets and programmes of study. Children are required to demonstrate knowledge, skills and understanding involved in areas of various physical activities. There are four Key Stages. The Physical Education curriculum took place in August 1995 with Sport, Raining the Game. This has been outdated by Curriculum 2000 changed, which brought physical education more into line with other subjects. The advantages of the National Curriculum are that there is a uniformity of experience and the approach is co-ordinated. It gives the teachers guidance and there is a wide range of experience with pupils. However some would disagree and say that there is no allowance for regional variations and that it can limit choice for teachers. They also think that the tradition of schools is lost and that the cost of facilities and resources is greater. The National Curriculum can help in my performance as it helps me to judge how I am progressing and how I can improve. It gives me goals to work towards to achieve the next highest level. Assessments in physical education are also very common. The have aims and objectives and the achievement of the student is evaluated and progressed. There are several types of assessments longitudinal student profiles, purely quantitative data like fitness tests and generalised comments. Children need to show what they know, what they can do and understand. Written and verbal language is also important, and being able to use all of these in performance situations. The assessment evaluates the whole person and is not just physical. The ability to work in a group, individually and the ability to abide by the rules is also important. These assessments have helped develop my performance as teachers and coaches can give feedback on how to progress and due to mark schemes etc. they can judge how far I am progressing and what my aims are for the future and how I can improve further. The changes in society and education in the last 20 years have affected school sport i.e. extra-curricular opportunities, with a reduction in emphasis on the sporting elite. Extra-curricular clubs, open to all, became more acceptable. Although, many teachers continued to focus on competitive sports and extra curricular activities were affected by the teachers strikes in the early 1980s, financial cuts were felt in terms of transport, the local management of schools allowed schools to supplement their funds by selling off school fields, the increasing amount of leisure and employment opportunities from children meant they were less attracted to competing for their school team and the anti competitive lobby became more vocal. Competitive sport helped to develop children in sport. The children taking part would have a natural competitive instinct, and would be more motivated to practise. They would also enjoy the sport more and competition can raise self esteem and they can learn how to cope with failure and success. But some people espoused the theory that competition in sport was not good for childrens development, stating the continued feelings of failure can cause stress and anxiety and the need to win can encourage unsporting behaviour. Over the years people have also come to realise that sports can greatly benefit overall fitness including reducing the risk of dying prematurely, reducing the risk of dying from heart disease, reducing the risk of developing diabetes, reducing the risk of developing high blood pressure, helps reduce blood pressure in people who already have high blood pressure, reducing the risk of developing colon cancer, reducing feelings of depression and anxiety, helps control weight, helps build and maintain healthy bones, muscles, and joints, helps older adults become stronger and better able to move about without falling and promotes psychological well-being. Due to realising theses developments the government has produced better sport facilities which can also aide in our development of physical education. In conclusion it can be seen that all of these periods in history have contributed to the development of sport. They have increased the amount of opportunities that we have and the facilities have greatly increased. Due to many of the Acts and the National Curriculum we are now free to participate in a much larger variety of activities and not only do we involve ourselves in physical activities but we learn the educational side of sport. I think that through the times the physical education system has improved and now we have more freedom to do what we want. I think that it is good to have physical education compulsory to a certain age as it is an attempt to keep children informed of the benefits of health and fitness and can keep the children more lively and enthusiastic about sport.

Contemporary Theories of Reasoning: An Analysis

Contemporary Theories of Reasoning: An Analysis Computational and algorithmic challenges to contemporary theories of reasoning Kattja Madrell Reasoning is the process of using given information to draw valid conclusions and produce new information (Goel Dolan, 2003) based on a combination of beliefs and language of thought (Fodor, 2001). The language of thought hypothesis proposed by Fodor (2001) states that thought and thinking occurs in a mental language; mental representations of reasoning are like sentences and this is why language of thought is sometimes also known as Mentalese (Murat 2010). Fodor (2001) admitted, however, that language of thought alone could not be used to explain reasoning; instead a combination of language of thought and a person’s belief is now accepted as the basis of human reasoning. Evans, Barston, Pollard (1983) found that a person’s beliefs about the conclusion of an argument influenced whether or not they deemed that conclusion to be valid; the truth value of a conclusion was based upon its logical relationship to a belief (Goel Dolan, 2003). Marr’s Levels of Analysis (1982) is a tri-level hypothesis that provides us with a critical framework to analyse and evaluate models of psychology thoroughly and consistently. There are three different levels; the computational level, the algorithmic level and the implementational level. In the field of cognitive psychology these levels have also been referred to as the semantic, the syntactic, and the physical (Pylyshyn, 1984). Marr (1982) describes the three levels of analysis as the following: â€Å"1. Computational Theory: the goal of the computation, why is it appropriate, and what is the logic of the strategy by which it can be carried out? 2. Representation and algorithm: How can this computational theory be implemented? In particular, what is the representation for the input and output, and what is the algorithm for the transformation? 3. Hardware implementation: How can the representation and algorithm be realized physically?† In other words, the computational level of analysis is concerned with what the model or system in question does and why does it do so. The algorithmic level builds upon this and analyses the way in which the system performs its computation whilst the implementational level is concerned with the way in which the system is physically implemented. Each level is a realisation of the level before it providing a more complete explanation of the system than its predecessor. This allows for the preservation of many of the properties of inter-level relationships in complex systems (McClamrock, 1991). This essay will discuss some of the critical issues and challenges to various contemporary theories of reasoning using Marr’s levels of analysis. Monotonic reasoning is based upon a series of logical rules. These rules are strict, rigid and cannot be altered by the addition of new information; instead this leads to the production of new beliefs (Brachman Levesque, 2004). In the absence of justifications that would make a rule non-monotonic, we use monotonic reasoning as a default (Lakemeyer Nebel, 1994). For example: A bass guitar (A) has four strings (B) A = B. James’ instrument (C) is a bass guitar (A) A = C Therefore James’ instrument (C) has four strings (B) (C = B) This is an example of monotonic reasoning; the rules are consistent and based on logic and do not appear to be problematic. But what happens when we learn that James’s bass guitar actually has five strings? Reasoning monotonically forces us to learn a new rule (A =  ¬B) that contradicts a rule that is already known to be true (A = B). The principle of contradiction proposes that statements which contract each other – such as â€Å"a bass guitar has four strings† and â€Å"a bass guitar does not have four strings† – are mutually exclusive and cannot both be true in the same sense at the same time (Whitehead Russell, 1912). Monotonic reasoning displays a computational crisis when faced with logically contradicting information; as the rules cannot be manipulated or altered, the goal of the reasoning cannot be achieved. As we gain new information on various things on a regular basis, it is inappropriate to reason monotonically, like in classical logic (Isaac, Szymanik Verbrugge, 2013), as we will not be able to incorporate any new information to our established beliefs. It stands to reason that the only appropriate time to rely on monotonic reasoning is when in a situation in which one has complete knowledge; this, however, is still risky as one may believe that they have complete knowledge of a situation as long as they are not aware of any reason or evidence to suspect otherwise, demonstrating a false belief of what is known as the Closed World Assumption, an example of non-monotonic reasoning (Etherington, 1986) Non-monotonic reasoning is computationally more complex than monotonic reasoning; with its main forms all sharing the same level of complexity (Eiter Gottlob, 1992). This is because the system is malleable and based on various different connections being made. Unlike in monotonic reasoning, the addition of new information that may be contradictive of beliefs already held can alter what is already known; this occurs in two main ways belief revision and belief update. Belief revision is the addition of new information into a set of old beliefs without any logical contradictions or inconsistencies; preserving as much information as possible. Belief update is the changing (or ‘updating’) of old beliefs to take into account any differences (Gà ¤rdenfors, 2003). Non-monotonic reasoning leads to common-sense conclusions being drawn that are based upon the combination of both supporting evidence and the lack of contradictory evidence; Monotonic reasoning encounters problems with this due to the fact that the beliefs being reasoned about do not consider the absence of knowledge (Etherington, 1986). Non-monotonic reasoning shows a level of tautology that is not present in its monotonic counterpart; as beliefs are revised or updated to incorporate new information they become harder to negate. Take the previous example: A bass guitar (A) has four strings (B) A = B James’ instrument (C) is a bass guitar (A) A = C Therefore James’ instrument (C) has four strings (B) (C = B) We now know that the bass guitar in question has 5 strings. Using non-monotonic reasoning we can now amend our initial belief that a bass guitar has four strings so that it now shows: A bass guitar (A) usually has four strings (B) unless it does not have four strings ( ¬B) A = B unless A =  ¬B This example demonstrates a common display of default reasoning (Reiter, 1980); statistically most A’s are B’s so it is acceptable to make a general assumption based on the statistical majority. As well as making general assumptions, default reasoning is also based upon conventional and persistent assumptions, along with a lack of contradictive information (Brachman Levesque, 2004). Various rules of inference in non-monotonic reasoning have been proposed and explored, including circumscription (McCarthy, 1980) and negation as failure (Clark, 1978). The closed world assumption is a form of non-monotonic reasoning based on the assumption of complete knowledge. Proposed by Reiter in 1978 the closed world assumption is described as follows: â€Å"If we assume all relevant positive information is known, anything which is not known to be true must be false. Negative facts may simply be inferred from absence of positive counter parts† (Reiter, 1978). To put it in other terms, if P is not provable from the knowledge base available then we must assume not P ( ¬P) (Etherington, 1986). This assumption has one major flaw; should a person not be in possession of all the relevant information, then the assumption can no longer apply. When (and only when) there is a complete and expert knowledge of the matter being reasoned about is it truly appropriate to employ the closed world assumption. In order to prevent unwanted inferences of non-monotonic logic, such as the false belief of the closed world assumption, it is necessary to retract any assumption of complete knowledge; this leads to the use of implicit general assumptions (Brachman Levesque, 2004). If the addition of any newly learned information is contradictive to these general assumptions, adjustments are made (Etherington, 1986) and beliefs are updated or revised (Gà ¤rdenfors, 2003). The general assumptions made when reasoning non-monotonically are based upon normalcy obtained from knowledge and experience; we may assume that James’ bass guitar has four strings as bass guitars normally do so. But what statistical probability can be assigned to an assumption to label it as ‘normal’ and what situational factors determine which assumptions can be made? When does a situation deem it appropriate to assume? The complexity of the ever-changing algorithms behind non-monotonic reasoning lead to different results being produced; for example, due to slight changes in situation, individual differences and varying information. Default reasoning is arguably one of the most popular forms of non-monotonic reasoning (Reiter, 1978). Based on the principles of default logic (see Nebel, 1991; Goldszmidt Pearl, 1996), default reasoning demonstrates a serious computational crisis known as the specificity principle. The specificity principle states that, when faced with a logical conflict, people make assumptions based more commonly upon more specific defaults than general ones (Brachman Levesque, 2004); this can lead to stronger conclusions and, although at times, these conclusions are correct, the assumption itself that more specific defaults should be preferred is logically lacking (Brewka, 1994). In order to â€Å"make up† for this problem of specificity, one would have to overtly assign the appropriate priority levels to the defaults in regards to the situation in question. According to the principle of contradiction proposed by Whitehead Russell in 1912, when faced with a logical contradiction, a logical person should be able to disregard the restrictions of their system of reasoning to arrive at a logical conclusion. This however is not the case. In fact, much literature to date has shown human beings to behave in an illogical manner, demonstrating various logical fallacies that people reason with when using argumentation to negotiate life in a complex world (Hahn Oaksford, 2013). A few examples of this are ad hominem, ad Hitlerum and the slippery slope argument. When the character of an individual is attacked, it is suggested that any proposition they put forward should be disregarded; this is known as Ad Hominem (Hahn Oaksford, 2013). Ad hominem is a logical fallacy that proposes that once the character or credibility of an individual has been questioned, it is no longer possible for one to have absolute confidence in what that individual says (Harris, 2012). The term ad Hitlerum was coined by Leo Strauss in 1953; it is the name given to the logical argumentation that an idea or a view can be refuted if it is compared to one that may be held by Adolf Hitler, leader of the Nazi Party. Harris et al., in 2012, conducted a series of experiments to see whether or not participants agreed or disagreed with an opinion that may had been similar to a view shared by Hitler. They found that participants demonstrated sensitivity to probabilistic information when they were evaluating whether or not the ad Hitlerum argument was convincing. This showed that people based some of their conclusions on the origin of an argument rather than current facts. The slippery slope argument is another logical fallacy based upon belief or assumption rather than evidence, in this case not doing something for fear of what negative consequences that action may lead to. Corner, Hahn, and Oaksford (2011) outlined four defining components of the slippery slope argument: . â€Å"An initial proposal (A). . An undesirable outcome (C). . The belief that allowing (A) will lead to a re-evaluation of (C) in the future. . The rejection of (A) based on this belief.† Within beliefs in the slippery slope argument there appears to be some sort of implied mechanism which leads to the consequent action (C) directly from the antecedent action (A), even though this belief is not based upon prior knowledge nor empirical findings (Hahn Oaksford, 2013). These logical argumentations provide a computational challenge as, should human beings operate logically, conclusions should not be drawn based upon these fallacies however empirical evidence has shown that they frequently are (Harris et al., in 2012). Bayes Theorum is a formula proposed by Thomas Bayes that can be used to calculate probability in everyday reasoning (Bayes Price, 1763). Bayesian reasoning is the process of reasoning probabilistically under uncertain circumstances when not all information is known or available (Korb Nicholson, 2011). Using Bayes theorem, we can calculate the likelihood of different outcomes based on prior knowledge and experience of the world, assign probabilistic values and act accordingly (Oaksford Chater, 2007). The use of Bayesian reasoning has provided a new perspective in the analysis of psychological research; results from empirical studies have shown great deficits in human ability to reason logically (Wason, 1972). Where it would be most logical for participants to seek evidence that negated their hypothesis, they instead searched for and selected evidence that could only lead to the confirmation of their hypotheses (Hahn, Harris Oaksford, 2013). Using Bayes Theorem, however, Oaksford Chater (1994) demonstrated that this confirmatory response was actually the most probabilistically logical response; it involved the selection of data that provided the most information about the truth or falsity of the hypotheses (Hahn, Harris Oaksford, 2013). Persuasion is the process of sending a message to change a belief or incite an action. As well as its personal use, persuasion plays a major role in advertising, politics, law and many more public activities (Kamenica Gentzkow, 2009). There are a variety of different Bayesian persuasion mechanisms, such as talk games (Crawford Sobel, 1982), persuasion games (Milgrom Roberts, 1986), and signalling games (Spence, 1973); Bà ©nabou and Tirole (2004) further adapted the use of Bayesian persuasion to investigate mechanisms of self-signalling and self-regulation. Throughout all aspects of Bayesian reasoning, one thing remains constant; a person (A) can affect the actions of another (B) only by first changing the beliefs of B (Kamenica Gentzkow, 2009). Bayesian persuasion has been criticised in terms of its computational properties. Unlike argumentation, persuasion is concerned with what persuasive techniques work and why regardless of whether or not the reasoning was rational (Madsen et al., 2013). Empirically, the results of study into persuasion have shown that the effects on a person’s beliefs rarely persist (Cook Flay, 1978). There is also a lack of evidence in literature demonstrating that belief change resulting from a persuasive argument produces behaviour that corresponds with the change in belief (Festinger 1964). Bayesian reasoning shows a great deal of algorithmic complexity. The type of information being reasoned about has an effect upon the conclusions drawn with people showing greater difficulty in reasoning with conditional information than joint information (Lewis Keren, 1999). The probability estimates for a hypothesis are frequently updated with the addition of new relevant information using Bayesian inference. Gigerenzer Hoffrage (1995) analysed thousands of Bayesian problems and found that the adaptation of Bayes theorem using a frequency formats can be used to reduce algorithmic complexity. Bayesian persuasion is also a very complex process, most successful persuasion of belief happens after multiple persuasion attempts over a long period of time (Kamenica Gentzkow, 2009). Hahn and Oaksford (2013) proposed that the most influential factor of persuasion is the quality of the argument being put forward; because the quality of an argument is subject to personal opinion it provokes the question ‘what makes an argument good or bad?’ Human beings are not perfect Bayesians (Mullainathan, Schwartzstein Shleifer, 2008) and while some persuasive activities may reflect a person’s failures of rationality, Kamenica and Gentzkow (2009) concluded that a complete understanding of a Bayesian persuasion is needed in order to fully assess results in literature. Recently, psychological study has begun addressing the current issues in the computational and algorithmic levels of different types of reasoning. The effects of emotion upon the ability to reason logically have been called in to question (see Blanchette, 2013; Ayesh, 2003) as has the much greater issue of subjectivity in Bayesian reasoning (see Press, 2009; Ben-David Ben-Eliyahu-Zohary, 2000).

Effective Hand Washing Program Nursing Essay

Effective Hand Washing Program Nursing Essay Acute respiratory disease and intestinal tract infections are the primary causes of morbidity and mortality among young children (Vivas et al., 2008). Annually, more than 3-5 million children aged less than 5 years pass away from diarrhoea and acute lower respiratory-tract infection (WHO, 2005 cited in Luby et al., 2005). Moreover, WHO (2010) estimated that diarrhoea and respiratory infection are responsible for 35% of child deaths. The huge majority of child mortality occurs among the world poorest populations in low and middle-income countries. Vivas et al. (2008) reported that 62% and 31% of all deaths in Africa and Southeast Asia, respectively, are caused by infectious disease. In Indonesia, the largest cause of infant mortality and children less than five years mortality are diarrhoea and pneumonia (31.4 %, 23.8% and 25.2%, 15.5 %) (Ministry of Health of Republic of Indonesia, 2007). According to the results of basic health research (2007) by MoH of Indonesia, 26% cause of death in the countryside in the age group 5-14 years are diarrhoea and pneumonia. This indicates there must be a comprehensive treatment for age groups that are vulnerable to infectious diseases can be protected. Although everyone is susceptible to the transmission of disease, but children as future generations are one group that is at biggest risk (Hezel, Bartlett, Hileman, Dillon, Cessna, 2000 cited in Vessey, Sherwood, Warner, Clark, 2007). Children who are at school age are very vulnerable because infectious diseases most affect younger children (Vivas et al., 2008). At this age they will blend with the environment outside their home that does not allow parents to keep their attention. Behaviours of children such as do not want to lose time to play or toilet facilities are smelly and dirty increase the risk for infection. With their vulnerability, children will be very easily affected by diseases caused by infection. A previous study by Luby et al. (2005) reported that infectious diseases are common among school-age children are diarrhoea, acute lower respiratory infection and impetigo. As a result of this disease children of school age are not able to follow the lessons in school due to absences. Absenteeism is a chief problem among school-aged children, with approximately 75% of all school absences endorsed to illness. Illness-related absences have been shown to escort to both negative educational and economic outcomes (Lau et al., 2010). Moreover, community-acquired infections are a major reason for absenteeism among elementary school students mentioned by Dyer, Shinder, Shinder, 2000; Hammond, Ali, Fendler, Dolan, Donovan, 2000; McGuckin, Ali, 2002 cited in Vessey et al., 2007). Absenteeism due to infectious diseases will usually increase during the winter (Adams, Hendershot, Marano, 1999 cited in Vessey et al., 2007). Moreover, Afroza (2007) argued that washing hands with soap right to r educe the risk of diarrhoea, avian influenza, pneumonia and other diseases. Base on the stages of development according to Erikson (1968), school-age children referred to as the apprenticeship of live. This stage is the period of learning and mastering more basic skills models (Erikson, 1968) so it is appropriate to introduce to them about how to avoid infectious diseases. Children are more interested to learning and are very possible to adopt healthy behaviours at a younger age. Due to school children is the symbolism of the unification of all components of the family and society (Yuhanna, 2010), they can also being agents of adjust by spreading what they have learned in school to their family and community members (Vivas et al., 2008). From the above description then hand washing program in school-age children are very precise and strategic. If hand washing is taught from the beginning then certainly hand washing will become a habit until the end of their lives. Hand washing is very important technique was introduced to the school-age children. To get the best health benefit out of it, it is very important to consider the proper ways of washing hands with soap and running water (if possible). Several previous studies conducted in Indonesia found that although most of the people know about the importance of washing hands with soap but very few people (5%) know how to do it properly (Afroza, 2007). Hand washing with soap has been ranked the most cost-effective intervention for control of disease in the worldwide (Judah et al., 2009). A study conducted by Lau et al. (2010) found that hand washing interventions have been significantly reduce illness-related absences in elementary school students and significantly reduce a subset of illness-related absences (i.e. gastrointestinal illnesses). Hand washing is very effective programs conducted in schools. As a community, the school consists of various elements in them such as teachers, parents, students and the community around the school. Certainly the role of the other party is very important and needed. Then to involve other parties such as teachers, parents, community or society, strategic activities that possible to be implemented are community empowerment and health promotion (MoH of Indonesia, 2010). Furthermore, UNICEF (2006) stated that in order to create effective relationships need to do the communication and collaboration between schools, families and community. The affiliation of positive attitudes toward hand washing and the programs effectiveness in imparting knowledge helped to create a sustained social norm of hand washing among many children in disparate locations (Rosen, Zucker, Brody, Engelhard, Manor, 2009). Furthermore, to discuss many more in detail, the phenomena above will be describe into several topics such as definition, summarise and analyze, critically analyze opinion, and synthesize of phenomena into thesis plan. Definition In accordance with the phenomenon found in my interest area then the next explain about the appropriate definitions as follows: Hand washing Hand washing is washing hands with plain or antimicrobial soap and water (WHO, 2009). Hand washing is cleansing the hands of any dirt, starting from fingertip to elbow and arm in a certain way as needed (Subroto, 1987 cited in Yuhanna, 2010). Another definition by Potter (2005 cited in Yuhanna, 2010) hand washing is the rub with soap in with the whole hand skin surface with a strong and compact which is then rinsed under running water. Related to the definition above, in my opinion the definition of hand washing is practice of washing hands with soap by elementary school students in grade 1st 3rd . Elementary school According to Ministry of Education of Indonesia (2010) elementary school is a form of formal education unit conducting public education on basic education. Primary education aims to build a foundation for the growth potential of learners to become a human being: a healthy, independent, and confident. Public school or other equivalent form consisting above 6 (six) levels of classes, namely grade 1 (one), grade 2 (two), grade 3 (three), grade 4 (four), grade 5 (five), and grade 6 (six). As far as my knowledge, elementary school is operationally defined as the place where students 1st 3rd grades doing hand washing activities. Effective According to businessdictionary.com effective is the degree to which objectives are achieved and the extent to which targeted problems are solved. Effectiveness is determined without reference to cost and, whereas effectiveness means doing the right thing. Moreover in dictionaryreference.com effective is adequate to accomplish a purpose; producing the intended or expected result: effective teaching methods. Based on the definition before, for this phenomenon effective is how grade 1st 3rd elementary school students to wash hands in accordance with quality of hand washing. Program According to oxfortdictionary.com definition of program is a planned series of future events or performances. The synonym of program is a set of related measures or activities with a particular long-term aim. Moreover in Cambridge dictionaries online program defined as a plan of activities to be done or things to be achieved. Program is operationally defined as a series of hand-washing activities made à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹by the community school for students grade 1st 3rd. Summarise and analyze Based on previous studies obtained, further in this paper will describe summarise and analyze six components, namely definition, objective, conceptual framework, research design, samples, main result and limitation. Objective The purpose of this study was to identify, describe, explain, or predict the solution to a situation or a phenomenon that occurs (Hamid, 2007). As the best of my literacy, all research studies have clearly set goals. Based on 28 studies were found, the purpose of the studies can be divided into six categories. First, it aims to determine hand washing practice behaviour (Quintero, Freeman, Neumark, 2009; Drankiewich Dundes, 2003; Larson, Aiello, Cimiotti, 2004; Aslan et al., 2006; Larson Lusk, 2006; Yuhanna, 2010; Arfianti, 2010). In general the researchers would like to know about the implementation of hand washing compliance in various settings such as health care setting and in education setting. A study conducted by Quintero et al. (2009) further explains that by knowing about the hand washing behaviour will be able to identify bottlenecks in the implementation of proper hand washing practises. Meanwhile, Yuhanna (2010) connects the hand washing behaviour with parenting parent s. Second, it aims to assess affect of hand washing (Luby et al., 2005; Nandrup-Bus, 2011; Thumma, Aiello, Foxman, 2009). Study conducted by Luby et al. (2005) dan Thumma et al. (2009) associate hand washing with incidence of acute respiratory infection, impetigo and diarrhoea. While, Nandrup-Bus (2011) study associate hand washing with actual absenteeism because of infectious illness. Third, the objective is to determine hand washing barriers (Ramos, Schrader, Trujillo, Blea, Greenberg, 2010). To the best of my knowledge, there are three major barriers in hand washing practice such as facilities, supplies and supports. Specifically, Ramos et al. (2010) conduct studies about supplies barrier such as: soap and paper towel/hand dryer. Fourth, to get an idea of application of various handwashing product (Fuller et al., 2011; Morton Schultz, 2004). Fuller et al. (2011) and Morton Schultz (2004) each using a technique gloving and washing hand by alcohol gel. Based on guidelines on hand hygiene in health care by WHO (2009) to determine an effective hand washing products for hand hygiene should be carried out laboratory tests. Meanwhile, the two studies above are not in actual laboratory tests. Fuller et al. (2011) only to find whether hand hygiene compliance differed when gloves were worn and Morton Schultz (2004) linking the use of alcohol gel with reducing absenteeism secondary to infectious illness. Fifth, to evaluate knowledge, attitudes and behaviour of hand washing in community through the provision of education and promotion (Vivas et al., 2008; Lau et al., 2010; Sjoberg Eriksson, 2010; Rosen et al., 2009; Nandrup-Bus, 2010, Tousman et al., 2007; Zain, 2010). According to WHO (2009) area of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹education and promotion is very appropriate to be applied in both developed and developing countries. Especially in the developing countries, conduct cost-benefit, cost utility and cost-effectiveness very useful for improving hand hygiene. In line with Curtis et al. (2001) education or promotion program can change behavior and to be effective if built on local research, use locally appropriate channels of communication repeatedly and for an extended time. This is consistent with studies conducted by Lau et al. (2010) and Tousman et al. (2007), each of which carry education and promotion by given repetitive instruction and multiple week learner centered . Finally, it aims to evaluate effectiveness of hand washing (Curtis et al., 2001; Judah et al., 2009; Park, Cheong, Son, Ha, 2010; Asiedu, Van-Ess, Papoe, Asiedu, Anderson, 2011; Dunn, Palombo, Salamone, 2002; Vessey et al., 2007; Guinan, McGuckin, Ali, 2002; Snow, White, Kim, 2008). Based on the best of my literacy, effectiveness of hand washing related to quality of hand washing. Larson Lusk (1985) stated that quality of hand washing consist of five variables such as appropriateness, frequency, agent use, duration and technique. This statement are consistent with previous studies that conducted by Curtis et al., 2001; Judah et al., 2009; Park et al., 2010; Asiedu et al., 2011; Snow et al.,2008. On the other hand, reported that hand washing effective if able to reducing and subsequent absenteeism and no difference between different hand washing facilities (free wash hand basins and manual tap operated basins) in reducing microbial flora of hands (Dunn et al., 2002; Vessey et al ., 2007; Guinan et al., 2002). Conceptual framework From 28 research articles, several theoretical frameworks have been used, explicitly or implicitly, by the reviewed studies as the basis of intervention design and implementation. Although most articles failed to give a clear description of the theoretical framework behind the intervention design, based on the description of program procedure, I have identified the use of the following theoretical approaches: health belief model (Park et al., 2010; Morton Schultz, 2004), behavioural change theory (Tousman et al., 2007) and Precede Proceed model (Zain, 2010; Yuhanna, 2010). The Health Belief Model (HBM) is a psychological models that effort to explain and predict health behaviors focusing on the attitudes and beliefs of individuals (University of Twente, n.d.). Otherwise, Remocker Shea (2011) highlighted that HBM attempts to explain the thought process behind individuals decisions related to health behaviour change and maintenance. This model suggests that individuals determine the feasibility, benefits and costs related to an intervention or behaviour change based on the following constructs: perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, cues to action, and self-efficacy. Park et al. (2010) used HBM to examine the perception, motivating factors, and behaviour related with the use of hand washing to prevent H1N1 influenza transmission. On the other hand, Morton Schultz (2004) used HBM to understand hand washing knowledge and behaviours in the school setting and how the children practice this behaviour both insid e and outside the school environment. In these previous studies the use of HBM is appropriate because useful in understanding that perceived susceptibility to illness due to improper hand washing behaviours is necessary before commitment to changing or adopting the hand washing behaviour can occur. Tousman et al. (2007) used a model of health behavior change developed by Tousman Zeitz (2003). According to this model, behavior change is a function of factors related to the participants involved in the intervention, the structure of the intervention, and the techniques used in the intervention (Tousman et al., 2007). The participants factor refers to characteristics of the individual attempting to change behavior represented by 2nd grade students because they have a semantic knowledge base that allow them to accurately understand simple infectious disease principles. The structure of the intervention used four week 30 minute sessions. In this study, four types of learner-centered teaching techniques were used those are learner-centered interactive discussions, skill training, students perform activities and self monitoring homework assignment. The Precede-Proceed model describes factors influencing health outcomes and provides a comprehensive structure for health needs assessment, program design, implementation, and evaluation of health promotion programs (Hu, Wallace, Tesh, 2010). This model posits that predisposing, reinforcing, and enabling factors have an effect on behaviour and the environment (Huang Goran, 2003). The Precede-Proceed model consist of two phases, firstly is Precede phase and secondly Proceed phase. The Precede phase include social, epidemiological, behavioural and environmental, education, ecological, administrative and policy assessment (Hu et al., 2010), continuing by Proceed phase to the implementation and evaluation of the intervention (Huang Goran, 2003). Yuhanna (2010) find patterns of parenting as a reinforcing factors influencing hand washing behaviour in school-age children. Whereas, Zain (2010) identified predisposing factors which is education related to hand washing behaviour in school-a ge children. Zain (2010) stated that health education with lecture method, demonstrations and leaflets can affect hand washing behavior in school-age children. Both studies by Yuhanna (2010) and Zain (2010) only implement Precede phase, this may raise the question whether they can be specified using Precede Proceed model or not. A theoretical framework is essential at the beginning of a study to underpin research question and select variables as the end of a study to interpret the outcome (Kitrungrote Cohen, 2006). Furthermore, Bordage (2009) stated that conceptual frameworks help to understand problems or phenomenas that happen. Different conceptual frameworks emphasise different aspects of the problem or elements of the solution (Bordage, 2009). Thus, it can be concluded that the conceptual framework is essential. Researchers must determine the conceptual framework that will be use as a basis for research to be conducted. Research design According to Burns Grove (1993) cited in Hamid (2007) quantitative research is used to describe variables, examine the relationship between variables, and determine cause and effect interactions between variables. Each type of study design has advantages and disadvantages. Sastroasmoro Ismael (2008) states that the best design is to answer the research question accurately, effectively and efficiently. From 28 research studies, 25 studies used a quantitative study design and 3 used a mixed quantitative-qualitative design (Asiedu et al., 2011; Vessey et al., 2007; Tousman et al., 2007). None of the studies used a purely qualitative design. Among of studies that used quantitative study design, 2 studies used descriptive approach (Larson Lusk, 2006; Thumma et al., 2009), 13 studies used experimental approach (Luby et al., 2005; Dunn et al., 2002; Lau et al., 2010; Guinan et al., 2002; Sjoberg Eriksson, 2010; Nandrup-Bus, 2011; Rosen et al., 2009; Nandrup-Bus, 2010; Aslan et al., 2006 ; Ramos et al., 2010; Snow et al., 2008; Morton Schultz, 2004; Zain, 2010) and 10 studies used observational approach (Curtis et al., 2001; Fuller et al., 2011; Judah et al., 2009; Drankiewich Dundes, 2003; Larson et al., 2004; Vivas et al., 2008; Park et al., 2010; Quintero et al., 2009; Yuhanna, 2010; Arfianti, 2010). Among of 10 studies that used observational approach divided into 5 studies by cross sectional and 5 studies by longitudinal time dimension. Thirteen studies (46%) of the 28 studies used experimental design and 10 studies (36%) used observational design. This can be explained that in order to find the strongest causal relationship is to use an experimental study. While observational studies have the capacity of a causal relationship is weaker, but more widely used because it is relatively inexpensive and simple (Sastroasmoro Ismael, 2008). Sample To the best of my knowledge, sample related to subject, sample size, places of setting, and instruments that used to collect data. According to 28 studies reported that there are three categories of subject such as community, students in several setting and health care providers. Most of the subject in previous studies are students (Vivas et al., 2008; Asiedu et al., 2011; Vessey et al., 2007; Quintero et al., 2009; Lau et al., 2010; Guinan et al., 2002; Morton Schultz, 2004; Nandrup-Bus, 2011; Nandrup-Bus, 2010; Tousman et al., 2007; Snow et al., 2008; Ramos et al., 2010; Yuhanna, 2010; Zain, 2010; Park et al., 2010; Drankiewich Dundes, 2003; Thumma et al., 2009; Aslan et al., 2006; Rosen et al., 2009) followed by health care providers (Fuller et al, 2011; Sjoberg Eriksson, 2010; Larson Lusk, 2006; Arfianti, 2010; Larson et al., 2004) and community (Curtis et al., 2001; Judah et al., 2009; Luby et al., 2005; Dunn et al., 2002). The selection of the student as a subject most clos ely related to two things: the school age group is susceptible to diseases caused by infection (Hezel et al., 2000 cited in Vessey et al., 2007; Vivas et al., 2008) and characteristics of development phase of school age (Yuhanna, 2010). School-age children is the great imitator, they would learn to behave as the behavior of those around them. So that when children are taught from childhood to live clean and healthy behaviors, such as washing hands before and after feeding, they will be familiar and accept become habits (Yuhanna, 2010). School children are the symbolism of the union of all components of the family and community. So in this case school-age children can serve as agents of change for healthy behavior (Yuhanna, 2010). The sample sizes of students range from 57 (Zain, 2010) to 2042 (Quintero et al., 2009). The sample sizes of health care providers range from 54 (Sjoberg Ericksson, 2010) to 131 (Larson Lusk, 2006). The sample sizes of community range from 32 (Dunn et al., 2002) to 198,000 (Judah et al., 2009). Dunn et al. (2002) used 32 premises become samples divided into 13 premises with manual hand basins and 19 premises with hand free basins to investigate the effectiveness of hands free wash hand basins and manual tap operated basins in reducing microbial flora on food handlers hands. Related to the place of setting, school is the current setting that reported used followed by practise setting and community setting. At school setting consist of several specific setting. First in preschool (Rosen et al., 2009), second in elementary school (Vivas et al., 2008; Asiedu et al., 2011; Vessey et al., 2007; Quintero et al., 2009; Lau et al., 2010; Guinan et al., 2002; Morton Schultz, 2004; Nandrup-Bus, 2011; Nandrup-Bus, 2010; Tousman et al., 2007; Snow et al., 2008; Ramos et al., 2010; Yuhanna, 2010; Zain, 2010), third in secondary school (Aslan et al., 2006) and fourth in college (Park et al., 2010; Drankiewich Dundes, 2003; Thumma et al., 2009). At practice setting used wards in the hospital both inpatient and outpatient care unit (Fuller et al, 2011; Sjoberg Eriksson, 2010; Larson Lusk, 2006; Arfianti, 2010; Larson et al., 2004). At community setting used household, premises and natural setting (Curtis et al., 2001; Judah et al., 2009; Luby et al., 2005; Dunn et a l., 2002). From 28 research articles, several instruments have been used, explicitly or implicitly, single or combination used such as structure observation check list, questionnaire, wireless devices, several hand washing promotion, reviewing document, self report and combine of two or three instruments. Structure observation check list is the most widely used instrument (Curtis et al., 2001; Fuller et al., 2011; Dunn et al., 2002; Drankiewich Dundes, 2003; Aslan et al., 2006; Ramos et al., 2010; Snow et al., 2008). Followed by questionnaire instrument that used within 6 studies (Vivas et al., 2008; Park et al., 2010; Quintero et al., 2009; Sjoberg Eriksson, 2010; Larson Lusk, 2006; Yuhanna, 2010). Four studies from Lau et al. (2010); Guinan et al. (2002); Nandrup-Bus. (2010); Morton Schultz (2004) used reviewing document as instrument. Otherwise, several hand washing promotion instrument used by Luby et al. (2005); Rosen et al. (2009); Zain (2010). Furthermore, studies from Judah et al. ( 2009); Thumma et al. (2009); respectively, used wireless devices and self report as the instrument. Another four studies used more than one instruments. Asiedu et al. (2011) used combination between questionnaire and structure observation check list, Vessey et al. (2007) mixed between several hand washing promotion and reviewing document, Larson et al. (2004) combined between structure observation check list and self reported: diary, Nandrup-Bus (2011) used questionnaire and reviewing document and Tousman et al. (2007) mixed multiple instruments such as training devices, handout, reviewing document and structure observation check list. As opposite, studies conducted by Arfianti (2010) did not mention what type of instrument used. As additional, all studies have explained about the ethical consideration. It is very important because the main objective of the ethics of research is to provide optimum protection to the subject of research (Sastroasmoro Ismael, 2008). Main result With regard to documenting outcome measure, in all 28 studies reported several outcomes measure, respectively, hand washing compliance, absenteeism rate, hand washing frequency, illness symptom, soap usage, glove usage, number of colonies, presence of hand washing supplies, hand washing disinfectant consumption and some of the studies used more than one type of outcome measure. Not only outcome measure, but also variables identified from all 28 studies. Eight studies used hand washing compliance for outcome measure (Vivas et al., 2008; Quintero et al., 2009; Drankiewich Dundee, 2003; Larson et al., 2004; Larson Lusk, 2006; Yuhanna, 2010; Arfianti, 2010; Zain, 2010). Seven studies used absenteeism rate as outcome measure (Vessey et al., 2007; Lau et al., 2010; Guinan et al., 2002; Nandrup-Bus, 2011; Nandrup-Bus, 2010; Tousman et al., 2007; Morton Schultz, 2004). Each of these two studies used soap usage (Curtis et al., 2001; Judah et al., 2009), hand washing frequency (Park et al., 2010; Snow et al., 2008), and illness symptom (Luby et al., 2005; Thumma et al., 2009). Each one a study that used glove usage (Fuller et al., 2011), number of colony (Dunn et al., 2002), presence of hand washing supplies (Ramos et al., 2010) and hand disinfectant consumption (Sjoberg Eriksson, 2010). Some of the studies used more than one type of outcome measure. Asiedu et al. (2011) mixed hand washing practice and presence of hand washing facilities and supplies become outcome measure. In other hand, Rosen et al. (2009) combined belief, attitude, knowledge and self efficacy of preschool educator as outcome measure and Aslan et al. (2006) used level of knowledge and hand washing practice become outcome measure. According to 28 studies reported several variables that influenced hand washing treatment, respectively demography variable included age, education level, social norms and social status, quality of hand washing variable, impact of improper hand washing, insufficient of hand washing facilities or inadequate hand washing supplies, social support or social relationship and hand washing barriers. In eight intervention studies (Luby et al., 2005; Vessey et al., 2007; Lau et al., 2010; Guinan et al., 2002; Nandrup-Bus, 2011; Nandrup-Bus, 2010; Ramos et al., 2010; Morton Schultz, 2004), the study group was divided into one experimental and one control group. Rosen et al., (2009) and Aslan et al., (2006) have a one group experimental. Two studies (Sjoberg Eriksson, 2010; Zain, 2010) used pre test and post test questionnaires, whereas Snow et al., (2008) used one control group, two intervention group and post intervention questionnaires. As the best of my literacy, there are both consistency finding and inconsistency finding highlight among 28 studies. According to variable demography, namely gender reported consistent that female were more likely to practice more frequent hand washing (Park et al., 2010; Thumma et al., 2009). Otherwise, Lau et al. (2010); Guinan et al. (2002); Nandrup-Bus, (2011); Nandrup-Bus, (2010); Tousman et al. (2007); Morton Schultz, (2004) explained that intervention group has fewer episodes of sickness absence and fewer sickness day than control group. Its become inconsistency finding because as opposite Vessey et al. (2007) state that no significant differences were noted between the groups, indicating that the number of student absence was not appreciably affected by the hand cleansing technique used. Based on the important inconsistency finding of this study suggesting implication for further studies in order that focus on absenteeism rate affect by hand washing action. Limitation From 28 research articles, several limitations have been founded, explicitly or implicitly, single or multiple limitations. Several single limitations have to consider when interpreting the studies. First, limitation in approach system used (Curtis et al., 2001; Judah et al., 2009; Park et al., 2010; Vessey et al., 2007; Drankiewich Dundes, 2003; Larson et al., 2004). Curtis et al. (2001) stated that structured observation has limitation as a method of collecting data about human behaviour. Second, sample size and homogenous sample (Dunn et al., 2002; Sjoberg Eriksson, 2010; Yuhanna, 2010; Zain, 2010). Dunn et al. (2002) informed that small number of manual wash hand basins available for the project become limitation of the study. Third, Quintero et al. (2009) explained that instrument, namely questionnaire has any bias toward over reporting of proper behaviors. Fourth, out come variable from the studies (Larson Lusk, 2006; Morton Schultz, 2004). Morton Schultz (2004) stated tha t the outcome variable, absenteeism related to infectious illness could be perceived as bias in measurement because the school nurse served as data collector for the study. Fifth, 8 researchers were not clearly describe limitation in their studies (Luby et al., 2005; Asiedu et al., 2011; Nandrup-Bus, 2011; Rosen et al., 2009; Nandrup-Bus, 2010; Aslan et al., 2006; Snow et al., 2008; Thumma et al., 2009). In other hand, 7 researchers stated that in their studies have more than one limitation (Vivas et al., 2008; Fuller et al., 2011; Lau et al., 2010; Guinan et al., 2002; Tousman et al., 2007; Ramos et al., 2010; Arfianti, 2010). Vivas et al. (2008) stated that in their study there are several limitations toward to approach system, sample, and study design. Whereas, Arfianti (2010) explained that there are two limitations, namely sample and instrument in her study. Only five studies that explain the conceptual framework used (Park et al., 2010; Morton Schultz, 2004; Tousman et al, 2007; Yuhanna, 2010; Zain, 2010), whereas 23 researchers did not explain the conceptual framework that used as the basis on their studies. Critically analyze Based on the summary above, it will further be explained more specifically that gaps are found. The discussion will be divided into three sections: gap in knowledge and gap in conceptual framework. Gap in knowledge To the best of my knowledge, gap in knowledge found among others in objective and outcome variable. On the objective, all interventions have been prepared previously by the researchers. In this case, participants implement something planned by the researchers. Similarly, when the studies conducted in community setting (Curtis et al., 2001; Judah et al., 2009; Luby et al., 2005; Dunn et al., 2002). Curtis et al. (2001) evaluated whether the governments program of effective to behaviour change. Otherwise, Judah et al. (2009) determine effectiveness at increasing hand washing with soap in a natural setting. Moreover, Luby et al. (2005) assess the effect of hand washing promotion with soap on the incidence of acute respiratory infection, impetigo, and diarrhoea. Thus, all done by researchers have developed previously without the involvement of community to decide for themselves what they need. Fallen Dwi (2010) expressed how important and strategic working together with the community